CIPS Legal Aspects - Assignment Two Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

CIPS Legal Aspects - Assignment Two - Essay Example The letter of intent sent out by QSC may not initially be binding upon the parties in their entirety. However, it could be interpreted as binding on the parties if it closely resembles a contract. The letter of intent in this case has clearly specified that the binding terms of the contract would be QSC’s and the formal contract prepared by the procurement team is also in accordance with QSC’s terms. Letters of intent have traditionally been held to be non binding. For example, in the case of Turiff Construction Ltd v Regalia Knitting Mills Ltd2 it was held that a letter of intent will have two characteristics (a) it will express the intent to enter into a contract in the future and (b) it will itself create no liability in reference to the future contract. This would at the outset, suggest that QSC’s letter of intent specifying that its own contractual terms will prevail, may not have binding force. But in the Turniff Construction case, the Court nevertheless up held the contractual obligations associated with the letter of intent, on the basis of the facts in the case. In the case of British Steel Corporation v Cleveland Bridge and Engineering Co Ltd3, while it was held that while no contract was created based on the letter of intent itself, liability was nevertheless imposed. The Court in this instance pointed out that both the parties had expected a formal contract to eventuate, therefore work commenced after the issue of the letter of intent - if followed by a contract - â€Å"will be treated as having been performed under that contract.†4 This was also affirmed by Neill LJ in Monk Construction Ltd v Norwich Union Life Assurance Society5, in making a general statement that a contract may come into existence following a letter of intent, depending upon the individual circumstances of the case. According to HH Judge Thornton in A.C. Controls v British Broadcasting Corporation, â€Å"in construing and giving effect to a letter of intent,

Lincoln's Assassination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Lincoln's Assassination - Essay Example The Civil War had major implications in the life and death of Lincoln. In 1865, five days after the Civil War ended, Lincoln was shot dead by John Wilkes Booth while attending a play at the Ford’s Theatre with his wife.2 The factors that led to the assassination of Abraham Lincoln did not eventually justify its outcome in the preceding days. Though Booth was convicted for his crimes, not many of those other conspirers were. This indeed created lots of perplexity among the historians and the researchers, in asserting who may or may not have been involved in the assassination along with Booth. There were many conspiracies as whether Booth was solely responsible or he was just a tool in a major plot conspiracy hatched by a group of people. However, the idea that the assassination was a result of grand conspiracy of the Confederates arose immediately after the tragic happening. There exist many facts and evidences to support the possibilities of Confederates plotting the assassina tion of Lincoln. ... ain.3 This is mainly because the Proclamation freed only the slaves in the seceded states while others had to wait until the Constitution was amended in 1865. To add up to the circumstances, the proclamation blocked the intervention of Britain or France into the war, for the support of the Southern states, as they did not want to be portraying it as a war for slavery. All these incidences created hatred against the Lincoln’s presidency, personating him as a tyrant. Though the South had hatred for Lincoln and was fighting for their independence, the Confederate’s plot to abduct or kill Lincoln arose after an Dahlgren incident of discovering Union cavalry officer’s concealed papers, which revealed the attempts of Union soldiers to kill Davis.4 When those Dahlgren Papers were distributed as evidences for plot to kill President Davis, it created outrage and disapproval for the Union government across the Southern states. â€Å"In the resulting uproar Southern newspa pers blasted Lincoln and Union leaders as depraved murderers and ferocious criminals and demanded that they be held personally accountable.†5 Booth was suspected as the Confederate’s secret services operative. One of the strong reasons behind it was that, there were coded letters found in the belongings of Booth, revealing his connection with the Confederates. In addition to that, when Booth escaped, he travelled using an underground path, which the Confederate spy network used to secretly transport resources to and fro. Also, the testimony given by George Atzerodt, a fellow Confederate conspirator, implicated that there were also plans to explode the White House for killing the President.6 However, there is also objection to the fact that Booth was solely a puppet in the hands of Confederate. Being a

Women Leadership In Public Sector History Essay

Women Leadership In Public Sector History Essay In a fast paced and changing environment, the focus of attention is increasingly on the need for effective leadership not just good management, and women have recently proved that they are not only good in making food and taking care of children, but also good in leading the society and promoting a better generations. Moreover, women made dramatic gains in electoral politics, winning a number of high profile positions of national leadership and a record number of seats in parliaments around the world. However, ladies who are aspiring to leadership positions are facing particular challenges; they often face far more meticulous tests to determine their suitability for promotion and must be active in seeking selection for leadership positions. Nevertheless, in order to create your own opportunities, you should acquire the characteristics and competencies of an effective leader and integrate these into your personal leadership style not caring about your identity or gender. Furthermore, through interactive exercises and group discussions, female will gain powerful communication, negotiation and influencing skills which will help them succeed in male oriented working environments. They will learn how to achieve an assertive but not aggressive response styles and create and sustain an image of authority. They will also acquire valuable techniques to help them lead, empower and motivate their staff to excel. To give an opportunity for women to develop practical leadership skills as well as to benefit from the breadth of knowledge and experience of their peers within a range of commercial and public organizations is an obligation and a duty in the hands of the government. In fact, a large number of women around the world have set up and managed their own businesses. It was not easy for those women to succeed in business. They had to face a lot of difficulties and overcome a number of barriers to become successful in their ventures. They had to deal with discrimination and endure the doubt of society, and also put in more effort than men to prove their credibility to others. The frequent mismatch that arose against women, on the one hand is because of societal discourses and media representations which often reproduced slim and highly stereotypical accounts of womens leadership, and on the other hand, because individual womens subjective experiences of leadership challenged such representations. Many experiences have been conducted concerning womens leadership, One of them was done through the Student Leadership Practices Inventory (Student LPI) and Leadership Competency Inventory (LCI), demographic questionnaire, and focus group interviews have been asked, the researchers explored the leadership training the women had received and their perception of their leadership abilities and development needs. The findings showed that the women reported frequently demonstrated exemplary leadership practices and many possessed significant leadership experience. Participants scored highest on competencies utilizing people skills and lowest in areas reflecting competence in cognitive or strategic skills. While exposed to formal leadership education, they reported receiving their leadership education primarily through observation and experience. Data from other studies were gathered in three diverse sample conditions to examine whether male and female managers differed in styles of leadership observed by their direct reports and they examined differences in both transformational and transactional leadership styles using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. In three samples, women leaders were rated by both their female and male direct reports as displaying certain key aspects of transformational leadership (i.e. charisma, individualized consideration) more frequently than men. Although the effect sizes were generally small, the results of these studies suggest that women are no less transformational than their male counterparts, and may, in fact, be more so. The sex of the raters did not appear to make any difference in the results obtained. What studies and research have shown? According to  the new Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu report, Paths to  power: Advancing women in government, launched in advance of International Womens Day on March 8, governments have been more successful at advancing women than the  private sector. Globally, women are increasingly being elected and appointed to  positions of power within the  public sector such as heads of state, ministers and cabinet members, and legislators more so than in the  private sector. Furthermore, Talent and knowledge are the  most important resources a  nation can possess, said Greg Pellegrino, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, Global Public Sector Industry Leader, and one of the  authors of the  report. Womens progress has vital implications for the  health and growth of governments, companies, and nations. Therefore, it is crucial that governments and companies work together to  harness and cultivate global female talent, to  help create positive change and ensure continued growth and success. According to Diana Radl Roger, partner at Deloitte Czech Republic and Slovakia, creating appropriate conditions for women is a  very difficult task because it demands cooperation of the whole organization. In  my opinion, companies that take care of and support a  better work-life balance, win their employees loyalty, and not only their female employees. They provide incentives for higher performance and professional growth. Indeed, the number of women in a company suggests the companys culture and  values, Progress with respect to  womens participation in the  public sector serves as a  model for the  private sector. Countries that have women in government leadership positions have an  increased number of issues affecting women on the  legislative agenda, often resulting in positive societal and economic developments. For example, after ten women won parliamentary seats in Kenya, legislation relating to  womens issues, such as combating domestic violence, was passed into law. Likewise, research has shown companies with women in leadership positions perform better and achieve more economic rewards than those without women representation. The  top 500 multinational firms, which had at least three women on their boards, saw a  16.7  percent return on equity, while average companies just saw an  11.5  percent return. Evidence suggests that as female representation in government increases, their shared interests emerge, bringing about increased attention of issues affecting women. It also paves the  way for more women to  move up the  ranks, as their predecessors break down many of the  cultural and institutional biases still in existence. As the  world grows ever more interconnected, talent is becoming increasingly mobile. With the  exception of North America, regions throughout the  world are experiencing a  brain drain, in which educated women are emigrating at alarming rates in search of advancement opportunities. For example, in Africa alone, 27.7  percent of females with tertiary education emigrate 10  percent more than men. What are the steps to be taken to preserve women rights to leadership? An organization-wide culture shift is required to  nurture an  environment that is friendly to  women and encourages their advancement. In reality, women are a  critical national resource for economic growth  .Womens progress has vital implications for the  health and growth of governments, companies, and nations. Both the  private and public sectors must continue to  nurture and advance diverse talent including high-potential women in order to  stay competitive and grow. According to Anne Weisberg who is the director of Deloitte Services LP in the  United States, and one of the  authors of the  report, While women have used individual strategies to  achieve their ambitions, accelerating the  advancement of women into positions of leadership in the  government will require new organizational strategies led by those in senior positionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Among others steps, it will require organizations to  establish metrics and accountability measures, focus on career development for women and promote work life integration. The insertion of women in the workforce is critically important to the economy. Research has shown that if you have women in leadership in a company, it performs better. The same is true for the public sector. In fact, having women in high levels of government according to Excellency Maha Nakib, Minister of Tourism and Antiquities for the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is important, but whats more important is having women who can make a difference. The United States Case: In the United States, women are increasingly praised for having excellent skills for leadership and, in fact, women, more than men, manifest leadership styles associated with effective performance as leaders. Nevertheless, more people prefer male than female bosses, and it is more difficult for women than men to become leaders and to succeed in Male dominated leadership roles. This mix of apparent advantage and disadvantage that women leaders experience reflects the considerable progress toward gender equality that has taken place in both attitudes and behavior, coupled with the lack of complete attainment of this goal. United States, where women constitute 24% of the chief executives of organizations, 37% of all managers, and 43% of individuals in management, financial, and financial operations occupations (U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006,). Although no one would argue that gender equality has arrived or is even near at hand, such statistics reflect massive social change in womens roles and opportunities. Advantages mixed with disadvantages: Alice H. Eagly argues in her book Psychology of Women Quarterly that research has established a mixed picture for contemporary female leadership. Women leaders on average manifest valued, effective leadership styles, even somewhat more than men do, and are often associated with successful business organizations. Attitudinal prejudice against women leaders appears to have lessened substantially, although even now there are more Americans who prefer male than female bosses. People say that they would vote for a woman for president; however, only slightly more than half of Americans indicate that the country is ready to have a female president. Because of the remaining prejudicial barriers, women face challenges as leaders that men do not face, especially in settings where female leaders are nontraditional. Such signs of advantage mixed with disadvantage and trust mixed with distrust are contradictory only on the surface. They are manifestations of gender relations that have changed dramatically yet have not arrived at equality between the sexes. Changes occurring in the 21st century: Many women have contended successfully with barriers to their leadership, as shown by the fact that women now have far more access to leadership roles than at any other period in history. The inroads of women into positions of power and authority reflect many underlying changes (Eagly Carli, 2003, in press)-above all, womens high level of paid employment (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007) and a lessening of the time demands of womens housework, accompanied by greater sharing of childcare and housework with husbands and partners (Bianchi, Robinson, Milkie, 2006; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005). Associated with these shifts in roles is a large increase in womens education, whereby young women have become more educated than young men (U. S. National Center for Education Statistics, 2005). Because these changes in employment and education are accompanied by psychological changes in the form of increasing agency in women (e.g., Twenge, 1997, 2001) and greater career ambition (e.g., Astin, Oseguera, Sax,Korn,2002), women have achieved many more leadership positions than in the past. Women continue to encounter impediments to leadership within organizations, but many of these impediments can be removed or weakened by organizational changes designed to improve womens (and minorities) access to and success in leadership roles (e.g., Kalev, Dobbin,Kelly, 2006; Rapoport, Bailyn, Fletcher,Pruitt, 2002; Yoder, Schleicher, McDonald, 1998). On the other hand, the authors of Gender Equity or Bust! On the Road to Campus  Leadership  with Women in Higher Education argue that, Born of a patriarchal tradition, higher education continues to marginalize  women  at every turn as students, administrators, faculty, and athletic leaders. Whether the bias is conscious or unconscious,  women  are being penalized consistently for their gender (Wenniger and Conroy, 2001: 7) However, taking into consideration the deep changes taking place in womens roles and in the cultural explanation of good leadership, it is clear that women will continue their rise toward greater power and authority. The 20th-century shift toward gender equality has not ceased but is continuing (Jackson, 1998). The presence of more women in leadership positions is one of the clearest indicators of this transformation. Are women interested in political leadership? Women  would not be equally represented in student  government, much like they are not equally represented in the federal government, because they do not choose to run for office. One explanation is that  women  are not as interested in politics and  government  as men. The second explanation for not running for office could be that they do not believe they are qualified. Ultimately, these findings show that further research in which female student  government  representatives, candidates and the student body electorate are asked specifically why  women  might not be running for office or getting elected would offer more insight into this gender division of  leadership. Gender and Leadership: When it comes to gender and leadership, one thing is clear. Women can be successful in leading both private and public sector organizations. Women corporate leaders face a special set of challenges due to the male dominated nature of these things. Because women are members of the lower status minority group, for them assimilation creates problems with cultural adaption, the inability to maintain a positive sense of identity, feelings of marginalization and isolation and increased exposure to harassment and other stressors. (Korabik, 1997) What is the role of the media in all this? An analysis of media discourses on womens leadership, suggests the need for more nuanced ways of understanding women leaders identity formation that combine a range of macro and micro methodologies. It points to the importance of including an examination of both the specific organizational fields and the broader political, social and economic discourses of womens leadership, as mediating influences on the construction of womens leadership habits. It is our hoped that our study reveals the need for more complex ways of understanding women leaders identity formation and, in so doing, opens up productive spaces from which may flow subjugated knowledge of diverse womens leadership. Where is the female disadvantage? Our meta-analytic demonstration that women fare less well than men in male-dominated and masculine leadership roles identifies context-specific disadvantage (e.g., Eagly et al., 1995)-that is, in some leadership roles, women face obstacles that men do not face. If women who are in fact equal to their male counterparts are treated differently either in their access to male-dominated leader roles or in evaluations of their performance once they are in such roles, women would indeed face disadvantage as leaders. Such Disadvantage would be prejudicial, as defined by less favorable treatment of women than men, despite their objective equality (Eagly Diekman, 2005) one place to look for evidence of prejudicial disadvantage is in studies of attitudes toward female and male leaders. Especially informative are national polls that have asked representative samples of respondents for evaluations of men and women as leaders. Such polls have consistently shown favoritism toward male over female leaders. For example, for many years, pollsters have asked people what they think about personally having a job in which a woman or a man has authority over them. The specific Gallup Poll question is If you were taking a new job and had your choice of a boss, would you prefer to work for a man or woman? These data show a preference for male bosses over female bosses, although this differential in favor of men has decreased substantially through the years. What are the female advantages? Although revealing relatively small differences, findings indicate an advantage for women leaders. Women, more than men, appear to lead in styles that recommend them for leadership. In contrast, men, more than women, appear to lead in less advantageous styles by attending to subordinates failures to meet standards or by displaying behaviors that involve avoiding solving problems until they become acute and by being absent or uninvolved at critical times. What is clear from the meta-analysis is that women leaders, on average, exert leadership through behaviors considered appropriate for effective leadership under contemporary conditions. Why might women and men display somewhat different leadership styles within the limits set by their leader roles? Women are faced with accommodating the sometimes conflicting demands of their roles as women and their roles as leaders. In general, people expect and prefer that women be communal, manifesting traits such as kindness, concern for others, warmth, and gentleness and that man be agentic, manifesting traits such as confidence, aggressiveness, and self-direction (e.g., Newport, 2001; Williams and Best, 1990). Because leaders are thought to have more agentic than communal qualities (Powell, Butterfield, Parent, 2002; Schein, 2001), stereotypes about leaders generally resemble stereotypes of men more than stereotypes of women. As a result, men can seem usual or natural in most leadership roles, thereby placing women at a disadvantage (Eagly Karau, 2002; Heilman, 2001). Consequences of prejudice toward female leaders: Although prejudicial attitudes do not invariably produce discriminatory behavior, such attitudes can limit womens access to leadership roles and foster discriminatory evaluations when they occupy such positions. Social scientists have evaluated womens access to leadership roles through a large number of studies that implement regression methods. Finally, women have different opinions and views and having just one woman does not mean all are represented. We need to take more action in order to ensure that leadership women who have the style and the personality of a leader are taking their chance and are being represented. Moreover in order to ensure this right, we should provide women with education because in educating a woman, you educate a community. In the 21st century, many women are coming up in government and its really important to give them the mentorship they need to grow their careers and to motivate other women to act like them. This way, women will embrace a participative empowering consensus-building style of leadership and women will change the nature of power; power will not change the nature of women. (Bella Abzug, State of the World Forum, 1996)

Mark Twain a Racist? Absolutely not! Essays -- Literary Analysis

Celebrating its 135th anniversary this year, Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a classic of American literature and is read by millions across the nation every year. However, many claim that the book promotes and endorses the heinous act of racism. In their attacks on the classic, many of the book’s critics employ evidence such as the use of the n-word 211 times (Powers, 2010) and the novel’s repeated inferior depiction of African-Americans. Many supporters of the novel, though, hail it for being so controversial. They claim that the dialogue started when discussing the book is a great chance for students to broaden their views on many controversial topics. As Harris puts it (2000), "If it isn't a dangerous book, there really is no reason for anybody to read it or teach it". Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn unquestionably does not promote racism, and actually serves to question the very idea of racism itself, as shown by T wain’s use of realism, the use of a child narrator, and the author’s deliberate intention to criticize the act of slavery and racism. Throughout Huck Finn, Mark Twain employs realism to accurately portray life along the antebellum Mississippi River. Merriam-Webster defines realism as â€Å"the theory or practice of fidelity in art and literature to nature or to real life and to accurate representation without idealization.† Throughout the novel, Twain uses realism to show readers how life was and how blacks were treated. Many critics of the book criticize the language used in the book. As Powers puts it (2010), â€Å"The controversy exploded in 1957, when the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People condemned its 211 uses of the n-word, the infamous epithet for African ... ...-old boy show them the true path of equality and fairness. Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn clearly does not promote racism, and actually defames it, and the universal lessons taught in the book can still be applied today. Works Cited Camfield, G. (2005). Race. Retrieved from http://dig.lib.niu.edu/twain/race.html Harris, E. (2000, September 26). 'huck finn' still pushes buttons, professor says. Retrieved from http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=3637 Powers, M. (2010, May 05). Mark twain’s â€Å"adventures of huckleberry finn†. Retrieved from http://www.america.gov/st/peopleplace-english/2010/May/20100505151725naneerg0.2608759.html Salwen, P. (Unknown). The quotable mark twain . Retrieved from http://salwen.com/mtquotes.html Twain, M. (1986). The adventues of huckleberry finn. New York, NY: Penguin Books Ltd.

Addressing International Legal and Ethical Issues Simulation Summary

Addressing International Legal and Ethical Issues Simulation Summary What are the issues involved in resolving legal disputes in international transactions? When the United States (U. S. ) entering into an agreement with another country it is important that the U. S. Company confirms that the contract is legally enforceable. With international business transactions each country needs to be aware of any international laws and legislations. Both parties should also be aware of changes that are made to international laws and regulations. What are some practical considerations of taking legal action against a foreign business partner based in another country? The consideration a business needs to know are the laws of the country they are doing business in and the country could deny further business transactions if possible legal action is taken. A United States (U. S. ) business has to remember, a law in the U. S. is not the same law in another country. If a law is broken, it may not be implemented in another country as it is in the U. S. A contract is a binding agreement, but it is only binding if the law agrees with it. If there is a good relationship with the country, then the business should be able to trust that the country will make good on it. What factors could work against CadMex's decision to grant sublicensing agreements? A business runs into difficulties with sublicensing agreement when they choose to make several of them, growing a business chance of having lawsuits created against them. Presume a business unnoticed including the sub-paragraphs within the contract which would relieve them of any legal issue because of the agreement, the company could be completely responsible for any financial damages. When the local customs and laws conflict with the customs and laws of an organization operating abroad, which should prevail? Explain why There is no clarification is required when local laws and custom, conflict with laws of companies operating aboard. When a United Stated (U. S. ) business had decided to do business those laws and customs would win out. In most situations, the U. S. based business would have to sign a contract stating they would conduct business in accordance to the law and customs of that country (Melvin, 2011). How would you compare the issues in this simulation to the domestic legal issues discussed in your Week One readings? How should companies resolve domestic and international issues differently? Every time two businesses decide to enter into a contract, each wants their own country law to apply, so their law would protect them. When a business does business with in their own country they know the laws that apply and protect them. The opposite happens when a business decides to do business outside of their own country. They are not as accustomed with the laws of other countries. For companies to protect themselves, they should hire a lawyer who is familiar with the country they are going to do business in. The lawyer of that country can read the contracts and ensure both parties have proper protection (Melvin, 2011).

American Authors and Their Identity (Martin Luther King Jr Sojourner Truth and Thomas Jefferson)

All Americans partake in the American identity, one that represents freedom, equality and all its benefits. Sojourner Truth, Thomas Jefferson, and Martin Luther King Junior all indulged in the American identity to which they held to the highest regard, standing for what they believed was morally right. Although they shared this common identity, their various ways of implementing it were quite dissimilar. In 1776, the second year of the revolutionary war, (1775-1783) Thomas Jefferson, a Virginia congressman, who dared to speak out against the rule of the tyrant, King George III, wrote â€Å"The Declaration of Independence† which would come to be one of the greatest pieces of American Literature. In this epistle to the royal crown, he used stylistic devices such as organization and unique diction; He also uses rhetorical devices such as anaphora to convey his American identity. An identity that resented injustice, and stood for fair treatment of the people by the government. In 1851 Sojourner Truth, who was born a slave in 1797, gave her short yet powerful speech, â€Å"Ain't I a Woman†. This speech was administered at a Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio. The theme of the meeting being women empowerment, her speech complimented the occasion considerably well and passed on her message of equality amongst all with no hindrance through her use of slang and idiomatic expression. On April 16th, 1963, a civil rights activist from Atlanta Georgia, named Martin Luther King Junior, after being imprisoned, wrote a letter to the clergymen of Alabama, criticizing them for condemning his peaceful attempts towards racial equality and justice for the African American community and other minority races. His letter, titled â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail† showed examples of syntax, periodic and inverted sentences as well as parallelism. With Great Britain fighting wars on every side of the world, it was imperative that these expenses be funded. The solution was to outrageously tax the colonists in order to solicit funds to settle the war debt. During the Revolutionary period, Jefferson, the spokesperson of the colonists, took to writing to express the anger of the colonists against what would come to be known as the intolerable acts. He uses strict organization to arrange his work by order of importance. The letter first begins with Jefferson stating out the unalienable rights given to one such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. † (Jefferson) He then goes on to list the wrongs the royal crown has committed against the colonists, known as the list of grievances. â€Å"He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. † (Jefferson) Jefferson uses a rhetorical device known as anaphora in the repetition of the word â€Å"he has† as he continues to list the wrongs of the British Empire with each blow more powerful than the last. He concludes the letter by proposing a resolution, one that involves total emancipation from Great Britain. That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved;† (Jefferson) This portion of the Declaration of Independence directly correlates with his American Identity and dream, to see a fully emancipated America on her own, a dr eam in which there is freedom for all abound. He During the Realism era, Sojourner Truth, a former slave, was asked to speak at a women’s convention in Akron, Ohio. Truth spoke with a stern voice, never shy not even for a minute, she capitalizes on the use of informal language and slang, with which she uses to convey her message. She uses words like â€Å"fix† â€Å"racket† and â€Å"twixt†. She also develops a very informal relationship with her audience, making them feel loved, thus gaining their trust. â€Å"Well, children, where there is so much racket there must be something out of kilter. I think that ‘twixt the Negroes of the south†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. (Truth) She lets her true American identity be known, one that represents equality among all and a world in which women are being treated fairly and justly. Her use of figurative language through the repetition of the phrase â€Å"Ain’t I a woman†, fully illustrates the ideal that everyone is equal under her American identity. It began on April 3, 1963, with a series of marches and sit-ins against racism and racial segregation. Martin Luther King Junior, along with his colleagues, were arrested and thrown in jail on accounts of disobedience. He faced harsh conditions at the Birmingham city jail but channeled it to writing a great piece that criticizes the Alabama council men for condemning his peaceful protest. Throughout his letter, he uses different types of sentences. Simple sentences, â€Å"Seldom do I pause to answer criticism of my work or ideas. † (King) compound sentences, â€Å"In those days the Church was not merely a thermometer that recorded the ideas and principles on popular opinion; it was a thermostat that transformed the mores of society. The sentence variances although, seemingly useless, is used to illustrate the importance in the statement being said. To illustrate this, the letter written due to its multiple sentences, ranging with different types to reveal his American identity of an America free of segregation. These three authors used different mediums with which to correct what was wrong with America at the time, and to set the ground for a much more better America. The America that we ca me to see today. Thus revealing their true identity.

Manuel Quezon of the Philippines

Manuel Quezon of the Philippines Manuel Quezon is generally considered the second president of the Philippines, even though he was the first to head the Commonwealth of the Philippines under American administration, serving from 1935 to 1944.  Emilio Aguinaldo, who had served in 1899-1901 during the Philippine-American War, is usually called the first president. Quezon was from an elite mestizo family from the east coast of Luzon. His privileged background did not insulate him from tragedy, hardship, and exile, however. Early Life Manuel Luis Quezon y Molina was born on August 19, 1878, in Baler, now in Aurora Province. (The province is actually named after Quezons wife.) His parents were Spanish colonial army officer Lucio Quezon and primary school teacher Maria Dolores Molina. Of mixed Filipino and Spanish ancestry, in the racially segregated Spanish Philippines, the Quezon family were considered blancos or whites, which afforded them more freedom and higher social status than purely Filipino or Chinese people enjoyed. When Manuel was nine years old, his parents sent him to school in Manila, about 240 kilometers (150 miles) away from Baler. He would remain there through university; he studied law at the University of Santo Tomas  but did not graduate. In 1898, when Manuel was 20, his father and brother were accosted and murdered along the road from Nueva Ecija to Baler. The motive may have been simply robbery, but it is likely that they were targeted for their support of the colonial Spanish government against the Filipino nationalists in the independence struggle. Entry into Politics In 1899, after the US defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War and seized the Philippines, Manuel Quezon joined Emilio Aguinaldos guerrilla army in its fight against the Americans. He was accused a short time later of murdering an American prisoner of war, and was imprisoned for six months, but was cleared of the crime for lack of evidence. Despite all of that, Quezon soon began to rise in political prominence under the American regime. He passed the bar exam in 1903 and went to work as a surveyor and clerk.  In 1904, Quezon met a young Lieutenant Douglas MacArthur; the two would become close friends in the 1920s and 1930s. The newly-minted lawyer became a prosecutor in Mindoro in 1905  and then was elected governor of Tayabas the following year. In 1906, the same year he became governor, Manuel Quezon founded the Nacionalista Party with his friend Sergio Osmena. It would be the leading political party in the Philippines for years to come. The following year, he was elected to the inaugural Philippine Assembly, later renamed the House of Representatives. There, he chaired the appropriations committee and served as majority leader. Quezon moved to the United States for the first time in 1909, serving as one of two resident commissioners to the US House of Representatives. The Philippines commissioners could observe and lobby the US House  but were non-voting members. Quezon pressed his American counterparts to pass the Philippine Autonomy Act, which became law in 1916, the same year that he returned to Manila. Back in the Philippines, Quezon was elected to the Senate, where he would serve for the next 19 years until 1935. He was selected as the first President of the Senate  and continued in that role throughout his Senate career. In 1918, he married his first cousin, Aurora Aragon Quezon; the couple would have four children. Aurora would become famous for her commitment to humanitarian causes. Tragically, she and their eldest daughter were assassinated in 1949. Presidency In 1935, Manuel Quezon headed a Filipino delegation to the United States to witness US President Franklin Roosevelts signing of a new constitution for the Philippines, granting it semi-autonomous commonwealth status. Full independence was supposed to follow in 1946.   Quezon returned to Manila and won the first national presidential election in the Philippines as the Nacionalista Party candidate. He handily defeated Emilio Aguinaldo and Gregorio Aglipay, taking 68% of the vote.   As president, Quezon implemented a number of new policies for the country. He was very concerned with social justice, instituting a minimum wage, an eight-hour workday, the provision of public defenders for indigent defendants in court, and the redistribution of agricultural land to tenant farmers. He sponsored the building of new schools across the country, and promoted womens suffrage; as a result, women got the vote in 1937. President Quezon also established Tagalog as the national language of the Philippines, alongside English. Meanwhile, however, the Japanese had invaded China in 1937 and started the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would lead to World War II in Asia. President Quezon kept a wary eye on Japan, which seemed likely to target the Philippines soon in its expansionist mood. He also opened the Philippines to Jewish refugees from Europe, who were fleeing increasing Nazi oppression in the period between 1937 and 1941. This saved about 2,500 people from the Holocaust. Although Quezons old friend, now-General Douglas MacArthur, was assembling a defense force for the Philippines, Quezon decided to visit Tokyo in June of 1938. While there, he tried to negotiate a secret mutual non-aggression pact with the Japanese Empire. MacArthur learned of Quezons unsuccessful negotiation, and relations temporarily soured between the two. In 1941, a national plebiscite amended the constitution to allow presidents to serve two four-year terms rather than a single six-year term. As a result, President Quezon was able to run for re-election. He won the November  1941 poll with almost 82% of the vote over Senator Juan Sumulong. World War II On December 8, 1941, the day after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, Japanese forces invaded the Philippines.  President Quezon and other top government officials had to evacuate to Corregidor along with General MacArthur.  He fled the island in a submarine, moving on to Mindanao, then Australia, and finally the United States.  Quezon set up a government in exile in Washington D.C.   During his exile, Manuel Quezon lobbied the US Congress to send American troops back into the Philippines.  He exhorted them to Remember Bataan, in reference to the infamous Bataan Death March.  However, the Filipino president did not survive to see his old friend, General MacArthur, make good on his promise to return to the Philippines. President Quezon suffered from tuberculosis.  During his years in exile in the US, his condition steadily worsened until he was forced to move to a cure cottage in Saranac Lake, New York.  He died there on August 1, 1944.  Manuel Quezon was originally buried in Arlington National Cemetery, but his remains were moved to Manila after the war was over.

L 1 9 - Presentation Skills ( 2 ) Essays - Visual Arts, Free Essays

L 1 9 - Presentation Skills ( 2 ) Essays - Visual Arts, Free Essays L 1 9 - Presentation Skills ( 2 ) The Question and Answer Session The audience may show their interest in your presentation by asking questions, seeking clarification, or commenting on the content. You should welcome questions and always be polite to the questioner. 1397014795500 Why is the Q and A session important? Watch the video clip "Q and A". Task 1 - Challenges from the audience 399605518859500 558673028321000 Complete exercises 6.4 - 6.6 on pages 104-105 of your textbook. [CD Track 24] Task 2 - Asking for and giving more information Complete exercises 7.1 - 7.2 on page 131 of your textbook. [CD Track 32] If an audience member asks you a question but you can't hear him very well, ask him to repeat the question . F or example: I'm sorry, could you say that again? Could you repeat the question please? I'm afraid I didn't quite catch that. If you are not sure exactly what the question means, you might want to check that you have interpreted it correctly . F or example: Am I correct in thinking that? Do you mean? Are you saying that? Does this mean that? If you really don't know the answer to a question, you could politely thank the questioner and say: Thank you for your question. I'm not exactly sure about that. I'll try to find out and let you know later. Visual Aids Many speakers in presentations present words and images visually using PowerPoint, overhead transparencies (OHT), a whiteboard or blackboard, or a flip chart. These v isual aids are intended to enhance your presentation and to help your audience understand it more clearly. The best presentations are generally those where the presenters address the audience directly without reading from a prepared script . Visual aids help you to achieve this by becoming your prompts, reminding you briefly of the main points you want to make during your talk, and by helping your audience to follow what you are saying. PowerPoint Presentations PowerPoint is becoming the norm at many professional presentations because of its ease of use and the variety of functions it offers. In your presentation, you are strongly encouraged to use PowerPoint slides to illustrate your ideas. These slides should support, but not take over, your presentation . They can provide a change of focus for the audience, but should not distract their attention, so it is important that the aids be relevant and complementary. 4351077-1524000 Your PowerPoint slides should: have a clear layout with plenty of space; use large plain fonts (minimum 20 points); be in note form but n ot in paragraphs ; contain accurate English with no spelling mistakes; use clearly visible colours for contrast. For academic presentations, it is best not to add irritating sounds or too many transition effects which detract from what you are saying. Cartoon-style clip art can appear rather frivolous when presenting serious data. Animated figures, while appropriate in other settings, can send confusing signals to an academic audience. Avoid the temptation to put all your script on to slides. Too many slides can be distracting to your audience and can lead to disaster if they become mixed up. Try to limit the number of slides to one or two for every minute of talking. 532014515528600 Task 3 Your Lecturer is going to show you 4 examples of PowerPoint p resentations . In groups, w atch the presentations and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each of them . Be prepared to report back to the class. PowerPoint 1 PowerPoint 2 PowerPoint 3 PowerPoint 4 Task 4 Watch the youtube video entitled " Don McMillan: Life After Death by PowerPoint " (4m24s) and arrange the following mistakes in the order as mentioned by the speaker in the video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lpvgfmEU2Ck F Most common PowerPoint mistakes 42386251778000 A. clashing background and font colors B. using the default font casually C. overusing bullet points D. forgetting to run spell check E. too many animation effects F. too many slides G. too much data in slides H. putting every word you say on the slide I. using irritating sound effects J. forgetting to cite the sources 44177532921000 Task 5 - Preparing slides for presentations Complete exercise 7.1

Free sample - The Clash. translation missing

The Clash. The ClashIntroduction Aesthetics is a philosophy that was concerned with the nature of art work and criteria of artistic art work. A clash in art work refers to noise that is produced when doing art work or bad objects which result from aesthetic work. In art work creativity and symbolic aspect of an object is considered.   Clash between aesthetics and function The clash between aesthetics and function has become an issue in architecture beyond reasonable doubt. The work of art including ceramics, textiles and art furniture was an architect designed modernist for apartments in early 1960s and 1970s.This was marked as the time when people had experience on design work based on social, civic and cultural significance. But nowadays, architecture work has changed because building aesthetic achievement has been left out from its real function. The work of artist architecture at present depends on clients; target consumer needs and products at consumer prices but contain professional grade functionality (Shiner 2003). The constructions of modern architectures are important in art museum though they incur challenges when relating with aesthetic and function museum designs. Art museum is a challenge because it needs a lot of art work in every stage of production. The category of art museum represent type of structures either explicitly created to commemorate important events like churches and civic buildings. Art itself has an important function which people admire and tour especially places like museums which have exiting features. The clash between aesthetic and function has totally changed for a decade ago. At that time many contemporary artists produced long and thoughtful observation products that were meant for spiritual purposes. For instance temporary exhibitions and installations were less designed as neutral containers for permanent works than areas of interactive experience (Shiner 2003). Conclusion The art of historical past and present has caused a clash in aesthetic work. The contemporary issues involved opposed conceptions of what social workers of art and modern artists have done. Different views between past and present art workers were raised in consideration of aesthetic and function thus continuing causing trouble in studio crafts. Reference list Shiner, L. (2003).The Invention of Art: A Cultural History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Family Member Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Family Member Interview - Essay Example She went to the United States when she was twenty eight and grew up together with her siblings, which strengthened the family bond between them. They are so close that a day barely passes without the siblings meeting. My Aunts mother was born in Ouanaminthe which is a small town in the Northern part of Haiti, with an approximated population of Population while the father was born in Haà ¯tien  (Haitian Creole:  Okap or KapAyisyen, often referred to as  Le Cap. The town which is refferered to as Cape Haitian in English is a commune with a population of approximately 190,000 on the Northern Coast of Haiti. The maternal grandparents were born and raise din Quananminthe while the paternala grandparents were born and raised in Cap-Haà ¯tien. Dash, 2001) Being a Christian, my Aunt went to a private Christian school. Both my husband and children are also Christians with my husband who is also Haitian being very active in Church. Being a Sunday schoolteacher and a member of the choir, my Aunt attends church twice a week. She is strong in her religion that they have a daily bible study with the family. (Marcus, 2009) Just like other parts of Latin America, Haiti is predominantly inhabited by Christians with 16% members of Protestantism while approximately 80% are Roman Catholics. There are small group of the populace which are Hindus and Muslims mainly found in the Port-au-Prince. Another religion that is practice by Haitians is Vodou. The religion encompasses different unique traditions consisting of a mixture of Western and Central African, Native American and European. The practice has been embraced by the believers despite the associated negative stigma it’s associated with, both within and out of the country. Despite the fact that the exact number of practitioners of Vodou is not known, it is believed that a small group of people still practice the tradition besides their Christian faith. There are also few Christians who also

Human sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Human sexuality - Essay Example Golanty and Edlin (196) describe experiment where persons got alcohol with tonic or tonic without alcohol, and it was told to the randomly taken subjects that they drink alcohol. These persons, regardless whether their drinks contained alcohol or not, demonstrated sexual desire. Alcohol decreases the level of self-control of increases the level of aggression. ‘Alcohol myopia’ when a person ignores negative consequences and is focused on the sexual context is a known result of the alcohol consumption (Bancroft 406). As alcohol decreases control of own behavior, it becomes one of the strongest predictors of the sexual aggression (Rosental 412). Alcohol is just a symbol of establishing the proper sexual behavior. Biological impact of alcohol is harmful for the human sexuality. Chronic alcoholism is the main risk factor. Alcohol decreases sexual desire for both male and female. The most commonly reported problem for male alcoholics is erectile dysfunction. Ejaculatory incompetence, erectile impotence and premature ejaculation occur less frequently. Typical problems of the female alcoholics are lack of orgasm, lack of sexual interest, lack of sexual arousal or pleasure, lack of lubrication, painful intercourse and muscular spasms (Aluko et al. 1281). The mechanisms of alcohol’s impact on the human sexuality are not well understood. It acts as depressant and sedates on the brain cells decelerating the brain activity. The researches results show that chronic intake of alcohol may significantly decrease the level of testosterone for male persons. The low level of testosterone can be a possible explanation for the sexual dysfunctions of male alcoholics. Another effect of alcohol the retardation of blood congestion and swelling in the genitals, as well as decrease of the vaginal blood volume. It can explain the erectile dysfunction due to altered blood flow to genitalia and/or

The Importance of Logo for any Organisation Essay

The Importance of Logo for any Organisation - Essay Example Logo Of Fila 11 Conclusion 12 Recommendations 13 Bibliography And References 15 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The report explains the importance of logo for any organisation and how important logo is in communicating the offerings and values of the organisation to the target audience as well as the society. The report explains that the logo should be prepared considering different aspects and management should pay a lot of attention while deigning of logo. As logo is a critical marketing tool which is not changed every year therefore it is important that the management comes up with a logo that is able to reflect the existing and future offerings of the company, the industry in which is operating, the products and services that the company would like to offer, the values of the organisation and the brand image. It is very important that the logo of the company should be catchy, engaging and pleasing to the eyes of the target audience. The logo should be able to communicate important features or characteristics that differentiate the organisation from others. Importantly, logo should make the firm stand out and logo should look prominent when logos of other firms in the industry are compared. The report analyses the logo of Zara, a retailer that offers clothing and other accessories for men, women and kids. The logo of Zara and what it communicates to the people is studied and its logo has been compared with other logos in the fashion industry. Recommendations have been given in order to improve the logo so that it becomes more appealing and more engaging for the target audience. introduction Logo is a graphical image or icon or a trademark used by organisations to reflect their name so that people are able to recognize the organisation (Design, 2005). Logo is the identity of the business and organisations around the world spent a lot of time in designing their logos as logo reflect the company and a dull or a common logo would not be able to attract customers or help people recognize the brand (Williamson, 1994). It is important for organisations to differentiate their logo from others so that they are able to recognize at once when they glance at the logo (Rivers, 2002). Logo is considered as one of the most important marketing tools as it is used in different places like promotional tools such as brochures, flyers, advertisements, and other marketing material (Duffy, & Hopper, 2003). A good logo helps in communicating what the company is about and what it can offer to its customers whereas a poor logo confuses people and they are unsure what the company is about and what it could offer to customers (Olins, 2003). The shape, colours and how the name or logo is presented is important as it gives the idea of the presentation of the company and if an organisation have not focused on its logo which is the symbolic representation of the company, then how it could offer quality products to its customers (Pavitt, 2002). This report analyses logo of one of the firms in the fashion industry, Zara. The logo is Zara is confusing as it is not able to represent what the company offers. Selection of Logo Zara is one of the leading fashion brands in the international industry offerings variety of clothing and different accessories for people of all ages. The company has its he adquarters in Arteixo, Spain and it has been operating since 1975. Zara offers clothing products for men, women as well as kids. There are lots of variety available for each group of people as one can find jackets, sweaters, blazers, shoes, jeans, shirts, t-shirts etc (Tiplady, 2006). Zara has been described as one of the most innovative retailers internationally by Louis Vuitton (CNN, 2001). As it has been claimed that Zara is one of the most innovative retailers therefore the company should have a logo that could

The Leader as Communicator Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Leader as Communicator - Assignment Example Intellectuals have pinpointed some core competencies that are essential for the leaders (Leading Concepts, 2012). An effective leader should have an ability to express information or convey his/her message explicitly and appropriately. He/she should understand the significances of good oral communication with colleagues, managers and other executive class office members. A leaders communication style should be efficient enough to grab listeners’ attention and encourage them to fulfill the assigned task effectively (Leading Concepts, 2012). However, it has noticed that mass communication is more effective than the individual communication because in mass communication messages are designed more strategically that directly hit cognition of large audience and uniform passive perception that help all members to work with unity (Harris, 2009). For developing good communication skills it is very important for leaders to develop good listening habit at first place. Then develop an ability to make eye contact during communication process (Barker, 2010). Moreover, it is important to always design messages in mind before triggering them to the audience and most importantly never send mixed messages. It is because mixed messages can reduce the effectiveness of the communication process and might contribute to weaken the accomplishment of desired aims (Barker,

Female Genital Mutilation among the Somali Community in London, And Literature review

Female Genital Mutilation among the Somali Community in London, And Its Effects on Girls (11-15) In Education - Literature review Example Mostly carried out minus anesthesia, statistics form WHO indicates that FGM is so common in Africa, and developed countries where FGM is common, the immigrants are the ones who practice it. Over 150 million young girls and women have undergone Female Genital Mutilation across the globe, at least according to World Health Organization. There are various reasons of carrying out FGM, at least according to some communities who cite the reduction of libido in women in order to control their sexual life. In United Kingdom, the Somalis have been the largest immigrant group according to the statistics released by the Refugee Council in 2005. However, these statistics do not have further information on the health needs of the Somali people living across UK. As Hammersley (1998) notes, over 34,000 Somalis living in London City alone, the women are the majority as compared to men by 56 percent to men’s 44 percent. Nonetheless, these figures do not include those of asylum seekers, just as it has always been hard to get the exact number of minority groups across UK. It is paramount to note that although not all health information of immigrants is available, specific health needs among of some immigrant communities are available. For example, some researchers have studies language and communication needs of the Somali people including their mental and physical conditions. Undoubtedly, these needs are vital when it comes to pregnancy and childbirth issues. Matters of maternal familiarities also need understanding of both social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, this paper will mainly review Female Genital Mutilation among Somali girls aged 11 and 15 and will examine the consequences of FGM when it comes to education. The paper will also examine the... This essay tresses that it is important to discuss the dangers associated with FGM. According to the World Health Organization, female genital mutilation leaves mental and physical damages to women and girls. In fact, in some instances, some girls have bled to death due to wrong cutting. There is no doubt that the victims experience mammoth pain during cutting, a pain that they will always remember in their entire lives should they happen to survive. Various researchers have associated some psychometric stresses with FGM. There are also other effects of female genital mutilation for example, pain during sexual intercourse, severe pain during delivery, bladder complications, and hemorrhage especially if the victim undergoes caesarean sections in delivering a baby. This paper makes a conclusion that the physical and psychological challenges experienced have serious negative impacts when it comes to education. The social consequences such as stigma and low self-esteem are also injurious to these girls who are trying to shape their careers. There is no doubt that FGM cases serious physical, social, educational, sexual and psychological challenges to girls aged 11-15. Societies and governments should do more to stop the vice and instead focus on ways that improve and empower the girl child. Criminalization of the practice has proved successful and religious sects should stop misleading the public on issues of FGM.

Individual Report and Reflection Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Individual Report and Reflection - Coursework Example The reflection portion would proffer personal opinion about the experience gained from the small business endeavour and how one would benefit from it in the future. One’s group which is composed of five members decided to choose Salah Adden mosque and sell tradition product from Saudi Arabia which is (subha). The purpose of the small business is to earn moray for donation to a chosen charity and enable making some reforms in the Salah Adden mosque. The report would be structured by initially discussing the planning phase where the profile of the charity event was organized and decided on. Intricate details were eventually noted to incorporate pre-event marketing information like the 4Is applied in the project; operational details; clearly defined objectives and group goals; market research; and the relationship to various stakeholders. The outcome of the event would also be revealed in terms of the financial performance and the lessons learned from the experience. Profile of t he Charity and the Community Involved The chosen charity as beneficiary for the proceeds of the subha sales is the Salah Adden mosque located in central London. ... served by friends included praying five times a day on the mosque and would therefore enable the group to facilitate contact and correspondences with authorized mosque personnel to implement the charity and donation and monitor the changes on the proposed improvements, as indicated. In this regard, the objectives and goals of the group and of the event are as follows: Group Objectives: To organize and implement a fundraising event through buying and selling of Muslim prayer beads (subha) and donate the proceeds from the sales to the Salah Adden mosque. The proceeds are proposed to be spent on carpets and adding more shelves on the mosque’s furniture and fixtures. How the Activity/Event Evolved, Planned and Promoted How the Fundraising Idea Evolved: The group has initially agreed on selling a particular product to raise funds for donation to the Salah Adden mosque. Each member in the group gave an idea about proposed products to sell. One member suggested selling some cake and drink; while another member said it would be better to sell stationary to address the students’ needs. Finally, from the suggested product list, the group decided to sell Subha, prayer beads for Muslim people for the reason that it is unique and the target customers would be interested in it. The proposed target market is the Muslim students of the University. The Planning Phase: The planning phase included the development of the business plan (Annex A) and a market research. The market research required application of the 4Ps theory where details of the product, price, place and promotions would be closely evaluated, strategies designed and explicitly stated for clarity of direction in implementation (Carter and Jones-Evans, 2006; Nwankwo and Gbadamosi, 2011). The brief market research

Female Genital Mutilation among the Somali Community in London, And Literature review

Female Genital Mutilation among the Somali Community in London, And Its Effects on Girls (11-15) In Education - Literature review Example Mostly carried out minus anesthesia, statistics form WHO indicates that FGM is so common in Africa, and developed countries where FGM is common, the immigrants are the ones who practice it. Over 150 million young girls and women have undergone Female Genital Mutilation across the globe, at least according to World Health Organization. There are various reasons of carrying out FGM, at least according to some communities who cite the reduction of libido in women in order to control their sexual life. In United Kingdom, the Somalis have been the largest immigrant group according to the statistics released by the Refugee Council in 2005. However, these statistics do not have further information on the health needs of the Somali people living across UK. As Hammersley (1998) notes, over 34,000 Somalis living in London City alone, the women are the majority as compared to men by 56 percent to men’s 44 percent. Nonetheless, these figures do not include those of asylum seekers, just as it has always been hard to get the exact number of minority groups across UK. It is paramount to note that although not all health information of immigrants is available, specific health needs among of some immigrant communities are available. For example, some researchers have studies language and communication needs of the Somali people including their mental and physical conditions. Undoubtedly, these needs are vital when it comes to pregnancy and childbirth issues. Matters of maternal familiarities also need understanding of both social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, this paper will mainly review Female Genital Mutilation among Somali girls aged 11 and 15 and will examine the consequences of FGM when it comes to education. The paper will also examine the... This essay tresses that it is important to discuss the dangers associated with FGM. According to the World Health Organization, female genital mutilation leaves mental and physical damages to women and girls. In fact, in some instances, some girls have bled to death due to wrong cutting. There is no doubt that the victims experience mammoth pain during cutting, a pain that they will always remember in their entire lives should they happen to survive. Various researchers have associated some psychometric stresses with FGM. There are also other effects of female genital mutilation for example, pain during sexual intercourse, severe pain during delivery, bladder complications, and hemorrhage especially if the victim undergoes caesarean sections in delivering a baby. This paper makes a conclusion that the physical and psychological challenges experienced have serious negative impacts when it comes to education. The social consequences such as stigma and low self-esteem are also injurious to these girls who are trying to shape their careers. There is no doubt that FGM cases serious physical, social, educational, sexual and psychological challenges to girls aged 11-15. Societies and governments should do more to stop the vice and instead focus on ways that improve and empower the girl child. Criminalization of the practice has proved successful and religious sects should stop misleading the public on issues of FGM.

Global Systems Theory Essay Example for Free

Global Systems Theory Essay Global systems theory is perhaps one of the many theories related to capitalism and transnational corporations. This paper attempts to look into global systems theory in the context of capitalism by making use of three articles as part of the literature for the research. By outlining the major contentions for each of these three articles, this paper will further juxtapose these main points with global systems theory and arrive at a more developed and comprehensive understanding of the theory as a whole. Brief Literature Review In Robert Granfield’s article â€Å"Making It by Faking It: Working Class Students in an Elite Academic Environment†, he indicates how working class law students experience inequalities among upper class students which influences the class of law students. By collecting data through observation, personal interviews, small group interview and survey from a national law school in the eastern part of the United States, Granfield was able to expose the essential differences between law students in terms of class background. Through class background, Granfield also identifies the apparent discrimination between working class students and upper class students at school whenever working class students feel that they are being treated as ‘cultural outsiders’. In Hays’ article â€Å"The Ideology of Intensive Mothering: A Cultural Analysis of the Bestselling Gurus of Appropriate Childbearing†, he presents the key components of the ideology of intensive mothering, specifically: children are outside the market value, are priceless and are not economic assets; good childrearing requires intensive commitment on the part of the caregiver, and; childcare is the primary responsibility of the individual mother. The central focus of Hays’ article focuses on childcare especially on the role of mothers towards their children. The author further gives the emphasis that children are ‘sacred’ in a sociological sense because of the fact that childrearing and its effects on children reaffirm the belief in the importance of children. It creates a protected space of security, trust and close human connection inasmuch as it illustrates the generous and nurturing characteristic of individuals rather than being individualistic and always inclined for competition. In Webb’s newspaper article â€Å"A Crowded Family Enters the Space Age† featured in the New York Times, the author explores the case of Eric Alan’s family through the functionalist perspective. From a functionalist perspective, social institutions such as families and governments are analyzed and explained as collective means to satisfy specific or individual biological requisites. These social institutions, along with the rest, are composed of interconnected roles or norms such as the interconnected roles within the family (e. g. father, mother, etc. ). In the case of the family of Eric Alan, the worth of his family proves the idea that the family as a social institution has interconnected roles with the larger society. In particular, having to redesign his familys home into something more breathable exemplifies the presumption that the individual roles in the family, such as the role of the father to provide an inhabitable home for his family, and the family in general is tied with the other segments of the society in such a way that one reinforces the values of the other and vice versa. Featured in the November 8 issue of the New York Times, A Crowded Family Enters the Space Age conveys the story of a father, Eric Alan, wanting to provide a larger house for his growing family with the aid of Architect Neil Denari. In return, Denaris expertise and skills acquire a living experience thus proving to be another feat not only in his career as an architect but also in the discipline of architecture. From a functionalist perspective, this very well provides a real life example of how the units of the society interact together harmoniously in order to continue with survival. Description of the Case Global system theory is a base for the concept of transnational practices. However, cross state boundaries do not necessarily originate with state agencies or actors. The global capitalist system operates to maximize profits at the expense of others. Murray Dobbing (1998) claims that the economic world order has changed and the nation-state is in decline. This paper will outline and support the claims of Dobbing through a discussion of the transnational practices in the economic and the cultural-ideological spheres in relation to the political sphere. The paper will further discuss the agencies that facilitate transnational growth. In the economic sphere, the global capitalist system offers a limited place to the wage earning masses in most countries. It has very little need of the subordinate classes in this sphere as sophisticated machines replace human laborers for cost saving and greater profit for capitalists. As John Kenneth Galbraith in Rifkin’s The End of Work (1995) indicates, the global capital system requires scientific minded managers who have specialized talent and can operate sophisticated machines. Unskilled workers and their families become part of an underclass and face permanent unemployment. Meanwhile, the global economy has created an environment in which many large corporations are becoming transnational corporations which bring wealth to both developing and developed countries often by lobbying to their governments so as to gain access to these developing countries. The governments of developing countries are jeopardizing their own legitimacy to cultivate an inviting environment for the private sector. While the global capital system provides resources for economic development, the global capitals’ desires for low prices and high dividends result in child labor, environmental destruction and the expropriation of land and resources from local communities including indigenous people. In the culture-ideology sphere, the aim of global capitalists is to persuade all classes, especially the working middle-classes, to consume above their biological needs for pursuit of capitalists’ profit, which will ensure the belief that global capitalist system will be perpetuated. The cultural ideology of transnational growth proclaims that the meaning of life can be found in the things that we possess. To consume, therefore, is to be fully alive, and to remain fully alive people must continuously consume. Moreover, the notions of men and women as economic or political beings are discarded by global capitalism as the system does not even pretend to satisfy everyone in the economic or political spheres. Their value to society is determined by what they can afford to purchase. Therefore, people primarily become consumers rather than citizens. The point of economic activity for working middle-class of the global capitalist system is to provide the resources for consumption to create the â€Å"global shoppers,† and the point of political activity is to ensure that the conditions for consuming are maintained. The advancement of the internet and technology has hastened the reduction of trade barriers and the increment of the â€Å"global shoppers. † According to Chomsky (2003), mass media overwhelmingly corporate and embraces the values of corporate leaders. Moreover, the major media outlets are linked in huge media chains, with many of these conglomerates owned by transnational corporations. Corporate control is further solidified by advertising paid in dollars to the media by corporations. Thus, the mass media consistently supports globalization, neo-liberalism, and the politicians who push these corporate agendas. Transnational marketing such as TV commercials, billboards, etc. are forced on the world’s middle-class consumers. Transnational corporations, such as Disney, heavily market their American pop culture products. By selling the same thing, the same way, everywhere with little or no reference to local cultural differences, transnational corporations has homogenized world culture. Analysis of the Case Robert Granfield’s article helps one to understand ‘global system theory’ as a whole. For the most part, Granfield’s discussion on how working class students adapt in the academic environment dominated by upper class law students gives us a brief but useful overview of how working class students attempt to join the remainder of the upper class of the workforce. The startling irony is that while Granfield espouses the idea that working class law students can blend well with their environment which is presumed to give much preference to upper class students by ‘faking it’ or by posing as one of the upper class, global system theory on the other hand implies that there is no substantial place for these working class students especially in the workforce. This is because the lower classes of the society or the working force comprising the bulk of the lower hierarchy, have already been replaced by sophisticated machines. Hence, manpower or physical labor becomes confined to those individuals who have sufficient learning to operate these sophisticated machines. If this is indeed the case, then it must also be the case that global system theory also espouses the presumption that the disparity between the highest and the lowest ranks of the social hierarchy grows parallel to the pace of global capitalism. But Granfield suggests that the working class students have the ability to ‘fake it’ which may also suggest the probability that even the individuals from the lower ranks can also make it to the bulk of the workforce able to operate the sophisticated machineries of the contemporary world. Nevertheless, the totality of the global workforce remains to this day comprised of a large number of working class citizens who fall at the median of the social hierarchy, notwithstanding children or minors who work which leads us to the next point. In Hays’ â€Å"The Ideology of Intensive Mothering: A Cultural Analysis of the Bestselling Gurus of Appropriate Childbearing†, we are given the presumption that children should be given the sufficient care and attention. This includes the idea that children or minors are not individuals who are expected to literally work whether in offices or factories. However, the opposite is true especially among nations below the poverty line or less-developed third-world countries. It is estimated that around 250 million children are under what we call â€Å"child labor† according to the statistics provided by Think Quest, an online database providing global child labor information (Think Quest, 2007). If global system theory is indeed true, then there would be little reason to believe that there is child labor among the less-developed countries where capitalism is beginning to grow its roots since children have very little knowledge on the use of sophisticated machines intended to replace the workers who handle the basics of the tasks in the corporations, for instance. But the case is that 250 million children work across the globe, which prompts us to question the claims of global system theory. On the other hand, global system theory may respond to this criticism by stating that the replacement of manpower with sophisticated machineries is only true for those transnational corporations operating in developed countries. Part of the reason to this is the idea that underdeveloped countries are not suitable locations for transnational corporate ventures largely because developed nations have what it takes for global capitalism—a strong and sustained demand for the goods and services being offered by these corporations. Webb’s article â€Å"A Crowded Family Enters the Space Age† reiterates the presumption that the family has its roles in nurturing its members which partially relates to Hay’s article that children should be nurtured and protected and should be treated as economic assets especially in terms of manpower or a part of the work force. The fact that Webb implies the idea that there are parental responsibilities towards the needs of the family especially of the children at least in terms of a suitable place to live point us to the idea that children or minors should be nurtured and cared for instead of being treated as members of the working class whether or not parents are able to provide for their needs. Ultimately, this brings us to the understanding that the decline of the nation-state as espoused by global systems theory is not fully achieved precisely because the basic unit of the society or of the nation-states for that matter—the family—reinforces the entirety of the nation-state by sustaining its integrity as a functional basic unit able to maintain its internal status. Conclusion In the end, global systems theory may not necessarily apply to the broadest range of nations, from developed to the developing and less-developed precisely because these nations have differences although similarities may also be noted. The presumption that the family remains a cohesive force in the society may substantially refute the claim that the nation-state is dissolving. Nevertheless, there are certain arguments of global systems theory that remains to this day a force with grains of truth in it. Apart from the fact that sophisticated machineries have slowly replaced the manpower of the working and lower classes of the society, capitalism has been reinforced by the expansion of transnational corporations worldwide. Works Cited Chomsky, Noam. Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies. House of Anansi Press, 2003. 1-20. Dobbing, Murray. The Myth of the Good Corporate Citizen: Democracy under the Rule of Big Business. Stoddart, 1998. 49-60. Hawken, Paul. The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability. 1st ed: Harper Business, 1993. 1-17. Rifkin, Jeremy. The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era. G. P. Putnams Sons, 1995. 3-14. Think Quest, http://library. thinkquest. org/03oct/01908/800/whatisit_childlabor. htm, December 4, 2007.

Sociological theory of religion

Sociological theory of religion 1 Using examples critically assess one sociological theory of religion In most traditional societies, religion is an important form of social togetherness. It augments a feeling of community and promotes a set of shared values and beliefs in some form of god. Religion also plays a central role in cultural life; people often synthesize religious symbols and rituals into the material and artistic culture of the society: literature, storytelling, painting, music, and dance.[1] It is the focus of the society that is of interest to religious sociologists, in particular theories concerning the way religious behaviour differs between and within societies. Beckford notes that theories revolving around how social interaction benefits or holds back societies, has made sociology a renowned area of study.[2] In order to establish a fundamental starting point in this thesis, the foundations of sociology and the sociology of religion will be described in context. Furthermore, it will discuss, in some detail, the sociological theoretical approach of functionalism by sociologists; a critical analysis will aim to show the differences in their approaches to functionalism and will include supporting and critical statements from preceding and subsequent sociological theorists. Sociologists generally define religion as a codified set of moral beliefs concerning sacred things and rules governing the behaviour of believers who form a spiritual community[3]. Auguste Comte (1798 1857) describes sociology as the study of human societies.[4] A classical view is that, it is a social science that, uses varied methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis,[5] and is often used to develop theory about human social activity. The sociology of religion therefore takes into account the aforemention ed and also includes the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society.[6] Jones (2003) describes Comte as the first to proclaim the virtues of an empirically based social science,[7] a type of sociology that would have enormous implications for someone like Comte, who had been born during the aftermath of the French Revolution. Bilton et al (1996) explain this further: Positive social knowledge could offer the means for peaceful reconstruction of social order by the elite of enlightened scientists and intellectualsSocial change need not depend upon revolutionary violence and the manipulation of the mob[8] Comte was able to make use of the new science for the progression of society and the re-establishment of order as well as being able to apply the positive method to social theory[9]. Comte and his fellow Frenchman Durkheim are said to be the forerunners in creating the discipline of sociology. Thompson (1982) describes Comte as giving the subject its name and an ambitious prospectus, whilst Durkheim gave it, academic credibility and influence.[10] Functionalist sociologists focus their attention on the nature of institutional relationships in society.[11] To understand this further, one can use Talcott Parsons functionalist ideas as an example. Parsons, [who supported functionalism in the United States] used the functionalist perspective to group institutions in society into four related functional sub-systems; economic, political, kinship, and cultural. This theory stressed the importance of interdependence among all behaviour patterns and institutions within a social system to its long-term survival. [12] In a similar way Durkheim In trying to explain the value of social and cultural character, illuminated them in terms of their contribution to the operation of an overall system. Furthermore, Malinowski, who promoted functionalism in England, endorsed the idea that cultural practices had psychological and physiological functions, such as the reduction of fear and anxiety, and the satisfaction of desires.[13] Another English man Radcliffe-Brown contended that, all instituted practices ultimately contribute to the maintenance, and hence the survival, of the entire social system, determining the character of inter-group relations.[14] It is Parsons sub-system of culture that encompasses religion that we now turn to. A functional definition of religion is fundamentally based on the social structure and drawing together of people, it pays particular attention to how religion guides and influences the lives of people who are actively involved, and through this promotes unity and social cohesiveness.[15] Durkheim believed and argued that, religion was a socially constructed institution, serving the needs of society by socialising members into the same norms, values and beliefs, therefore reinforcing the collective conscience upon which the stability of society rests.[16] He looked in depth at the origins, meaning, and function of religion in society. His belief was that religion was not so much about God, but more about the consolidation of society and the sense of identity that this creates within a particular society.[17] He fully believed that individuals who accepted their role within their own society develop a form of social conscience as part of that role, which Durkheim labels as the Conscie nce collective,[18] which in simpler terms could be labelled as, a common understanding.[19] Published in 1921 and penned by Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, is renowned as the best-known study on the sociology of religion.[20] Using secondary data, Durkheim studied native totemism in primitive Australian tribes, in effect the totem is a symbol that is an integral part of the group, and during ceremonies will be the magnet that draws everyone together to form a collective whole. Therefore, totemism in this instance is explained not in terms of what it is, [what the content of its doctrines and beliefs are] but what it does, that is, the function it performs for the social system.[21] Durkheim claims that, the totem, the sacred object is a representation, by which society symbolises itself,[22] which according to Fulcher and Scott, he believed to be the real basis of social solidarity.[23] From his observations Durkheim developed his theory of the sacred and profane, believing that all things in society can be separated into these distinct categories, as a fundamental dichotomy the sacred and profane are seen as two separate domains or worlds. For Durkheim the sacred meant the unity of the group embodied in symbols, as in his example of totems, the profane was more about the mundane or the individual, and less concerned with the group. However the British anthropologist Evans-Pritchard (1937) observed that sacred things may be profane at certain times, an example he gives is the case of the Azande[24], who, when their shrines were not in ritual use, were used as props to rest their spears.[25] This analysis of the sacred and the profane was extended to all religions by Durkheim and his followers, making a focus on what is similar about what they each do, and about the integrative functions all these religions perform on their social systems.[26] He therefore viewed religion within the context of the entire society and acknowledged its place in influencing the thinking and behaviour of the members of society.[27] Furthermore he beli eved that order flowed from consensus, from the existence of shared norms and values,[28] for him the key cause of social upheaval stems from anomie, the lack of regulating norms. Without norms constraining behaviour, explains Durkheim, humans develop insatiable appetites, limitless desires and general feelings of irritation and dissatisfaction.[29] Radcliffe-Brown continued Durkheims sociological perspective of society; he particularly focused on the institutions of kinship and descent and suggested that, at least in tribal societies, they determined the character of family organization, politics, economy, and inter-group relations.[30] Thus, in structural-functionalist thought, individuals are not significant in and of themselves but only in terms of their social status: their position in patterns of social relations. When regarding religious ceremonies Radcliffe-Brown contends that ceremonies, for example, in the form of communal dancing, promoted unity and harmony and functioned to enhance social solidarity and the survival of the society, in this he agreed with another renowned anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowskis functionalism was highly influential in the 1920s and 1930s, a British anthropologist, he conducted one of the first major studies of religion from an ethnocentric perspective, on the people of the Trobriand Islands.[31] The first anthropologist to undertake a long-term piece of field research, Malinowski lived among the Trobriand islanders for four years.[32] In studying the functions of religion in a small scale, he agreed with Durkheim that religion reinforced social norms, values and promoted social solidarity.[33] Malinowski also believed that religion could relieve social anxiety and could provide a sense of security especially when people are faced with situations in which they have no control, an example Malinowski gives is based on his observation of the Trobriand islanders fishing in a calm lagoon, no religious practice was attached, however when faced with the perils of fishing in the open ocean, religious rituals were always performed. In this way Malinowski b elieved humans could exert a perceived control over a world in which they held no significant, individual power.[34] This individual, perceived control can be seen to be used by people facing a personal crisis. Often in a situation where they have no control over the outcome, people will turn to religion looking for guidance and sanctuary; thereby giving them a sense of power. For Malinowski then, religion also helped to conciliate periods of life crises and events such as death, marriage and birth, these rituals, known as rites of passage are marked by ceremonies, that by their very nature, are a form of social togetherness that help to create social order and contentment. These rites however can be seen to be controlled in that to a certain extent one is prepared for new life, death and marriage, these events form part the circle of life and therefore come with some prior knowledge. Ceremonies that relate to these life events could be seen as a predictable common bond that will help to reinforce social solidarity. Malinowski argues that religion minimizes the disruption, in particular, of death. He believes that the assertion of immortality gives rise to feelings of comfort for the bereaved, whilst the act of a funeral ceremony binds the survivors together.[35] Coser (1977) explains further: Religion can counter a sense of loss, which, as in the case of death, may be experienced on both the individual and the collective level therefore religion as a social institution serves to give meaning to mans existential predicaments by tying the individual to that supra-individual sphere of transcendent values which is ultimately rooted in his society.[36] So far we have seen that collective or communal gatherings are generally aimed at promoting social solidarity and cohesion, this is backed by the empirical evidence offered by Malinowski in his study of the Trobriand Islands. Hamilton (1995) offers that these gatherings can also be interpreted as involving the recognition of divisions, conflict and disharmonies inherent in the society and rituals may be seen as a means of coping with and defusing them.[37] Concerning Malinowskis empirical evidence, a contrasting point is noted by Casanova (1995) who questions functionalism on empirical grounds, he argues that religion does not provide consensus and unity, instead he says that most conflicts [an example he gives is the Iran/Iraq war] in society have religious foundations.[38] Marxist sociologists also criticise functionalists on a theoretical level. Marx claims that religion does not create societal consensus, instead it creates conflict between those that have wealth in the ruling class and those that do not in the working class.[39] Therefore according to Marx, the only norms and values that are conserved by religion are those of the ruling class. Functionalist theory could therefore be said to neglect the areas in which religion has been dysfunctional for society, whereby religious divisions have caused disruption and conflict rather than promoting social order. History provides numerous examples of this including the aforementioned Iran/Iraq dispute, Northern Ireland and Bosnia. An Extreme functionalist assessment of religion, declares William Stevens, is put forward by American sociologist Robert Bellah. Bellah fuses Parsons argument that America derives its values from Protestantism, with Durkheims belief that the worship of god is the disguised worship of society. From this Bellah develops a new kind of religious concept, that of a civil religion.[40] Therefore despite the individual belief systems of American citizens, it is the overarching faith in America that unites Americans. Wallis (1983:44) cited in Jones, explains that Bellah finds evidence of civil religion in Presidential inaugurations and ceremonials such as Thanksgiving Day and Memorial Day are similarly held to integrate families into the civil religion, or to unify the community around its values.[41] A further point to be made here is that generally civil religion does not hold to a belief in the supernatural. Bellah disagrees and says examples of confirmation in the supernatural can be see n or heard on a daily basis, phrases such as God Bless America and the words In God we trust on the national currency, he believes are prime examples of this. However Stevens asserts that this is not the god of any particular creed, but a god of America. For Bellah then civil religion creates a social cohesiveness by gathering people together to collectively partake in some form of ceremonial event. Therefore flag waving at a sporting event or lining the street to celebrate a royal marriage or death can bring about a united outpouring of joy or grief that in itself generates order. A contemporary example is the untimely death of Princess Diana. Her funeral witnessed a monumental combining of people, faiths and nations in a symbolic act of grief. Functionalist sociologists tend to emphasize what maintains society, not what changes it and are criticized for being unable to account for social change because it focuses so intently on social order and equilibrium in society. Functionalists have to take into account that change does happen in societies and that change is a good thing, and can represent progress. Jones says that the functionalist way around this is to use an organic analogy social progress occurs as it does with organisms as an evolutionary change.[42] Bilton et al explain that this takes shape in the form of structural differentiationdifferentiation is a type of splitting or separation of a previously undivided unit, the new units differ in that they are more specialised in the functions they perform.[43] Talcott Parsons, in his approach to social change, emphasises differentiation. According to Parsons, Institutions change, if the need of the system changes.[44] An example of a system change stems from The Indu strial Revolution, which was facilitated by capitalism, was increasingly demanding technological advances to increase profit. In order to make this possible there was a need for more educated workforces. As a result the industrial economy needed a new form of family to perform these specialist functions. Thus, as one aspect of society changed the economy and production it required a comparable change in the educational system, bringing social life back into equilibrium. This new modernization of society, explains Marske, is associated with the increasing indifference of the individual from the traditional social bonds of an intimate network of diffuse social relationships. [45] Due to a greater demand in the workforce people from all walks of life came together causing an increase in the cultural diversity within a particular society. As a result individuality became a more prominent feature; religion it seems was becoming less social and more personal. Durkheim would disagree with this statement as he believed it was possible to be an individual as well as social institution, he explains, In reality, the religion of the individual is a social institution like all known religions. It is society which assigns us this ideal as the sole common end which is today capable of providing a focus for mens wills.[46] Dillon (2003) explains that social scientists and Western intellectuals have been promising the end of Religion for centuries, Comte announced that, as a result of modernization, human society was outgrowing the theological stage of social evolution and a new age was dawning which the science of sociology would replace religion as the basis or moral judgements.[47] Durkheim predicted the gradual decrease in formal world religions; in post-enlightenment society he felt that there would be a greater emphasis on the individual. This he believed would lead to a weakening of ties in the modern world. In addition he envisaged that social solidarity and the collective conscience would be taken up by other institutions that would evolve into new forms of religious experience.[48] Furthermore a maturing modernity would see scientific thinking replace religious thinking. As a consequence, Durkheim considered the concept of God to be on the verge of extinction. In its place he envisioned society as promoting civil religion, in which, for example, civic celebrations, parades, and patriotism take the place of church services. If traditional religion were to continue, he believed it would do so only as a means to preserve social cohesion and order. Parsons disagrees with this synopsis, with modern life will come structural frameworks that are more competitive and specialised, however they would still persist because religion is an adaptable structural framework for the explanation of inexplicable social phenomena.[49] A criticism applied to the functionalists perspective stems from Durkheims analogy that societies and social institutions have personalities.[50] To imagine that a society is a living, breathing organism is a difficult concept when in fact it is seen as an inorganic object. This creates what can said to be a philosophical problem and an ontological argument that society does not have needs as a human being does; and even if society does have needs they need not be met. The view here is that society is alive in the sense that it is made up of living individuals. What is not taken into account is that each individual is a different entity, with their own wants and needs. As part of the unit they can function and integrate within the group as a viable member. However individual life choices may not always create a positive function for the society as a whole. Functionalists in general tend to have a too positive view by believing that everything that exists in society does so because it has some kind of functional purpose. Robert Merton believed that it was entirely plausible for society to have dysfunctional elements.[51] Durkheim also recognised that some forms of social life could be seen in the same way, however he did not use the term dysfunctional. In his work on crime, he noted that crime was functional to society, this seems to be a contradiction in that he also said, too high a level of crime might not be functional, because it could create a state of confusion regarding what constitutes the norms that applied to peoples lives. As a society dysfunctional actions, in particular criminal actions are frowned upon, and as a society we can become mob-handed in the way people come together to condemn an act of crime. Durkheim has a point to make here in that, people combine together, forming a collective cohesion in defining themselves against what they are not.[52] Picturing society like a vast machine, Merton argues that a society should best be considered as a cross between the cultural goals of a society-what it holds its members should strive for-and the means that are believed, legally or morally, to be legitimate ways that individuals should attain these goals. In an ideally organized society, the means will be available to deliver all of its members to their goals.[53] One must take into account when analysing such theories that at the time of writing the world was a very different place to the one we live in today. Social anthropology has come under criticism for looking into primitive societies as a representation of unchanged societies criticism in particular stems from the lack of historical records that could confirm or deny any findings. Radcliffe-Brown considered this type of work a mistakehis belief was that the religious and ritual systems had to be understood in the context of the existing society and their role in that society.[54] One could linger on Durkheims prediction that religion would decrease with modernity, religion here being in reference to the act of attending a social gathering in the worship of some form, whether it be totemic or divine. However an important point to note is that at the time when the Sociology of Religion was in its infancy, religious practice was more of a regular occurrence than one would perhaps find in todays society. However individuals are still irrevocably influenced by the role of religion in their own lives. Their beliefs and values allow them to feel supported in their everyday life; religion sets aside certain values and infuses them with special significance. Culture plays an important part here, as values, customs and beliefs combine to become a moral code by which societies adhere to and live by and pass on to future generations. Religion encourages collective worship be it in a church, mosque, temple, home or some other specified gathering place. Through the act of collective worship the individual is encouraged to feel part of a wider community. Today, societies are classed as more secular in their nature, yet if one consider the earlier statement about religion being an important form of social togetherness it would be easy to make analogies with the different groups that make up the society we inhabit. For example schools hold assemblies, awards evenings and performances all which can be seen as an example of community spirit and social cohesion. People as individuals, have interests outside of their immediate social groupings, this does not make them an outcast or outsider, and instead it promotes a sense of identity, individualism and the self. The writings of sociologists such as Durkheim, Comte, Radcliffe-Brown and Parsons are still important today, especially in comparing the way society sees religion. However, in contemporary society sociologists have a different set of problems to contend with as belief in modern society and materialism for many becomes a more vital moral value than partaking in a religious practice . BIBLIOGRAPHY Beckford, James A. (2003) Social Theory and Religion, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Bilton et al, Introductory sociology 3rd Edn (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998). Casanova, Jose, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995) Christiano, Kevin J., William Swatos Jr Peter Kivisto, Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments Lanham, 2nd edition (MD: Rowman Littlefield publishers, 2008). Comte, Auguste, A Dictionary of Sociology (3rd Ed), John Scott Gordon Marshall (eds), (Oxford: OUP, 2005). Coser, Lewis A. Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context, 2nd Ed., (Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977), pp. 136-139, Coser, Lewis A. Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context, 2nd Ed., Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977: 136-139, Dewar, Greg, Religious studies, Philosophy and Ethics, (London: Oxford University Press, 2002). Dillon, Michele, Handbook of the sociology of religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Durkheim, Emile, The Division of Labor in Society. Translated by, George Simpson. (New York: Free Press, 1893/1964). Durkheim, Emile, and Coser, Lewis A., The Division of Labor in Society. (Free Press, 1997) Durkheim, Emile. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology. Translated by, Joseph Ward Swain. (New York: Macmillan, 1915). E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Theories of primitive religion, (Oxford: Clarendon press, 1965). Emile Durkheim, Sociology and philosophy (New York: free press, 1974). Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Social Anthropology and Other Essays. ( London,1950).Contains a critique of Radcliffe-Browns functionalism from the perspective of historicism. Fulcher, J. Scott, J. Sociology, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). Giddens, Anthony, Durkheim, (London: Harper Collins, 1996). Goldschmidt Walter, Functionalism In Encyclopaedia of Cultural Anthropology, Vol 2. David Levinson and Melvin Ember, (eds) (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1996), p. 510. Hamilton, M, The sociology of religion, 2nd edition (Oxon: Routledge, 2001). Hunt, S. Religion in Western Society, (Hampshire: Palgrave, 2002). Jones, Pip, Introducing Social Theory, (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003). Jones, Robert Alun., Rules of the sociological method 1895, in Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works. (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1986), pp. 60-81. Macionis, J. Plummer, K. Sociology: A Global Introduction (Essex: Pearson, 2005). Merton, Robert, Social Theory and Social Structure, (USA: Macmillan, 1968), chapter 3. Orenstein, Ashley D. DM, Sociological theory: Classical statements 6th edition (Boston: Pearson Education, 2005), pp.3-5: 32-36. Sociology Quarter, Durkheim as a functionalist, vol 16 no 3 (Summer, 1975), pp 36 -379. Thompson, Kenneth, (1982) Emile Durkheim, (Sussex: Ellis Horwood Limited, 1982). Winthrop, Robert H. 1991. Functionalism In Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 130. WEBLIOGRAPHY Functionalism, in Anthropology and Sociology The Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia. 2000-2007 Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0819881.html (Accessed: 18.01.10). Functions OF religion learningat.ke7.org.uk/socialsciences/soc-sci/soc/a2/R. Accessed 14.1.10. CliffsNotes.com. Introduction to Religion. http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26927.html. Accessed 10.1.10 Chris Livesey, Functionalist perspectives on Durkheim, www.sociology.org.uk Marjolin, Robert French sociology-Comte and Durkheim, University of Chicago press American journal of sociology, vol. 42, no 5 (Mar., 1937), pp693 -704. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2767763 (Accessed: 12.1.10.). Mark Glazer, Functionalism http://www.utpa.edu/faculty/mglazer/theory/functionalism.htm (Accessed: 13.12.09). Marske, Charles E, (1987) Durkheims Cult of the Individual and the Moral Reconstitution of Society, Sociological Theory, Vol. 5, No. 1, (American Sociological Association, 1987), pp. 1-14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/201987. Accessed: 17.01.10. The Azande, http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/EthnoAtlas/Hmar/Cult_dir/Culture.7829 (Accessed: 15/1/10). William J. Stevens, Religion: A Functionalist Assessment, http://www.helium.com/items841304-religion-a-functionalist-assessment. (Acces